Written by Himakshi
Research Intern,
Jindal Centre for the Global South,
O.P. Jindal Global University, India
The prosperity of a region, a nation or a city is intrinsically linked to establishing peace. While the 21st-century definition of peace is not confined to the absence of war or conflict, it is evident that even this foundational peace remains a dream for most of the developing world today. As incidents of violent outbreaks due to Social, Political or Economic volatility rise, it is important to undertake concerted peacebuilding efforts to identify and address the root cause of such conflicts. The world has experienced conflicts and wars for ages. But today, conflicts play out in newer forms like mass lynchings, hate speeches, ethnic violence, etc. which is why we need creative solutions to conflict resolution. Peacebuilding addresses the underlying causes of a conflict at the community level and helps people resolve their differences. It creates conditions for sustainable peaceful coexistence by addressing incidents of violence (International Alert, 2023). It paves the way for sustainable peace through communication and relationship-building between conflicting groups. However, as Severine Autesserre has mentioned in her book Peace land: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention, the ultimate remedy lies in the genuine inclusion of local population in the decision-making process.
In this article, an examination will be conducted for the two cases of Liberia and The Democratic Republic of Congo which have borne witness to civil wars and ethnic conflicts. This analysis will focus on assessing the efficacy and success of the International Peacebuilding efforts in resolving conflicts and averting incidents of violence for each of these cases.
The Remarkable Story of Liberian Peace
An American colony on the west coast of Africa that enjoyed nearly a century and a half of stability, Liberia became independent in 1847, emerging as the oldest democracy in Africa. However, the nascent legal system favoured the interests of recent arrivals from America at the expense of the indigenous tribes. This tension simmered for over a century to eventually erupt as Rice Riots in 1979 followed by a military coup in 1980. Despite the conduct of elections in 1985 and an attempt to implement a new constitution to reduce inequalities, discrimination against indigenous people still existed, and President Doe was known to carry out brutal campaigns and purging of Government officials from specific tribes, which culminated into a 14-year-long Civil war in Liberia spanning from 1989 to 2003. These conflicts ravaged Liberia with gross human rights violations including massive killing of civilians, torture, widespread rape and sexual violence, forcible recruitment of children as soldiers, extortion, looting of the national economy, and the destruction of cultural property. An estimated 250,000 people lost their lives in these 14 years. Finally, on August 18, 2003, a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed, ending the 14-year-long conflict, and bringing hope for a more peaceful and stable Liberia (Liberia, n.d.).
In 2003, UN Peacekeeping forces were deployed as the UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), which supported ceasefire, peace agreements, human rights, humanitarian aid, security sector reform and protection of civilians with Liberian people leading the way. In 2012, Liberian President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, in her speech, declared Liberia to be free from conflict, war or deprivation. The story of Liberian Peace has been remarkable because of the active involvement of the local population, especially women. Women Peacekeepers played a crucial role in advising women and girls regarding investigations in sexual and gender-based violence. Mission’s deployment of Women encouraged Liberian women to join their national force (United Nations, 2018). UNMIL established women’s peace huts as venues for conflict resolution at the community level and has funded women filmmakers to depict the role of women in the Liberian peace process. The mission supported youth involvement in the 2017 elections, contributing to a peaceful environment during the elections. UN Peacebuilding Fund (PBF) helped bring local government, communities, civil society, and companies together to discuss and resolve land conflicts. Peacekeepers also financially supported Quick Impact projects throughout Liberia in Sustainable farming and agriculture, recycling, climate action, urban development, etc., which not only helped achieve peace goals but also generated employment and sustainable development. UNMIL radio served as a vital communication channel, disseminating public health, human rights, and peace messages. These efforts have significantly contributed to building tolerance among Liberians and promoting diverse perspectives (Liberia: Peacebuilding and Sustaining Peace in Practice | PEACEBUILDING, n.d.).
The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
The Democratic Republic of Congo is geographically the largest country on the African Continent and endowed with a wealth of natural resources in the region, which has, regrettably, led to its colonization and exploitation, resulting in generational repercussions visible even today. Atrocities inflicted by King Leopold II of Belgium on the Congolese people created a deep-seated resentment that persisted until DRC finally gained independence in 1960. However, 83 years of direct colonial rule has developed deep transgenerational trauma, resulting in a crisis of identity evident at all levels of society, sometimes turning into violent episodes among Congolese people, reflecting the absence of a mechanism to repair their fractured cultural traditions.
Years after its independence, People of DRC have witnessed Political instability and Civil wars which played out as a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. The military coup of 1965 by Joseph Mobutu was only successful until the 1990s when, in the face of immense internal pressure, he was forced to flee the country during the First Congo War in 1997. The first and Second Congo Wars (1997 and 1998), also called Africa’s “world war”, were a comprehensive result of long-standing ethnic tensions that had been brewing in the region for generations and the Rwandan Genocide acted as a trigger leading to confrontation involving nine countries and numerous rebel groups against one another in a brutal combat that lasted from 1996 to 2003.
The aftermath of these wars in DRC saw a series of agreements to bring stability to the region. Lusaka Agreement of 1999 for establishing ceasefire followed by a deployment of UN Peacekeeping Force (UNPKF), Sun City Agreement of April 2002 to formalize democratic institutions and elections in DRC, Pretoria Accords in July 2002 to provide for a transitional political arrangement until fresh elections, and Luanda Agreement in September 2002 as a peace deal between DRC and Uganda. These agreements have provided a formal end to conflict but have not ended violence among rebel groups backed by the three countries (DRC, Uganda and Rwanda) till date. The failures of these agreements can be found in the exclusion of rebel groups in the case of the Lusaka Agreement, with a singular focus on the political elite and non-accounting of the complex nature of political realities in the Sun City Agreement because of which DRC continues to be one of the worst offenders of personal and political rights in Africa. Pretoria Agreement, on the contrary, has been successful in the inclusion of non-state actors in the decision-making process, contributing to a more inclusive approach, and the Luanda Agreement has been successful in the cessation of violence between the two states except for continued regional conflicts in border areas (Heidirmnp, 2022).
In his book Making Peace Last, Robert Ricigliano and his team of conflict practitioners examined the negotiation process. They determined the failures of peace attempts that were “simply working to strengthen the national level negotiations” while “the real driving force was regional sub-conflict.” (Heidirmnp, 2022). Thus, the best practice in the field of conflict resolution remains the inclusion of competing ethnic groups who often engage in conflict due to the “otherizing” of their opponents (Heidirmnp, 2022). Through experiences of both Liberia and Congo, it has been observed that while the goal is to achieve positive peace, it is crucial first to eliminate immediate violence. Thus, peacebuilding efforts that operate at a grassroots level, closely involving the local population and respecting their cultural context, are more likely to achieve peace and prevent violence. This approach acknowledges the nuanced dynamics that contribute to conflict and seeks to address them at their source, ultimately fostering more excellent prospects for lasting stability and harmony.
References
International Alert. (2023, June 22). What is peacebuilding? – International Alert. https://www.international-alert.org/about/what-is-peacebuilding/
What is peacebuilding? | Conciliation Resources. (n.d.).
https://www.c-r.org/who-we-are/why-peacebuilding/what-peacebuilding#:~:text=Peacebuilding%20seeks%20to%20address%20the,foundations%20to%20prevent%20future%20violence.
Liberia. (n.d.).
United Nations. (2018, March 29). LIBERIA: legacy of peace [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FdesF5HkJig
Liberia: Peacebuilding and Sustaining Peace in practice | PEACEBUILDING. (n.d.). https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/news/liberia-peacebuilding-and-sustaining-peace-practice#:~:text=The%20Peacebuilding%20Commission’s%20Liberia%20configuration,by%20the%20UN%20Country%20Team.
Heidirmnp. (2022, March 30). The Democratic Republic of the Congo: A case study of war and failed. Beyond Intractability. https://www.beyondintractability.org/casestudy/chestnut-DRC#overlay-context=
The opinions expressed in this article are those of the author (s). They do not purport to reflect the opinions or views of the Jindal Centre for the Global South or its members.
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