History of Southeast Asia and the Legacy of India

Aadityavikram Rana
Research Intern, Jindal Centre for the Global South,
O.P. Jindal Global University, India

Introduction

Southeast Asia is one of Asia’s most diverse and dynamic regions, encompassing the lands south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of Australia. It spans approximately 1.7 million square miles, or roughly 3% of Earth’s land area, and is home to over 675 million people, making it Asia’s third most populous region after South and East Asia. The region includes Brunei Darussalam, the Kingdom of Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, the Republic of Indonesia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, the Federation of Malaysia, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Singapore, the Kingdom of Thailand, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

It is characterised by cultural and ethnic diversity, with hundreds of languages spoken across its societies. These nations also form the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organisation promoting economic, political, and cultural cooperation.

History

Southeast Asia has a deep prehistoric past. The region was inhabited by Homo erectus and Homo floresiensis during the Pleistocene epoch, long before the emergence of modern humans. With the advent of the Neolithic period, Homo sapiens migrated from southern China into the region, bringing with them Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien languages to mainland Southeast Asia, while Austronesian speakers settled across maritime areas.

Agriculture began as early as 12,000 years ago, with intensive rice and millet cultivation emerging around 2000 BCE. By 1500 BCE, maritime trade networks were forming, as Austronesians of Island Southeast Asia established routes connecting Southern India and Sri Lanka—precursors to the later Indian Ocean and Maritime Silk Routes.

The Indosphere

By 500 BCE, sustained trade and cultural exchange with India—particularly southern and eastern regions—resulted in the formation of the Indosphere, where Southeast Asian societies adopted and adapted elements of Indian civilisation (Sengupta, 2017). The earliest Indianised kingdoms, such as Srivijaya in Sumatra and Java, Champa in Vietnam, and Funan in Cambodia, developed through these interactions.

Indian influence extended beyond religion to governance and social organisation. Local rulers embraced Indian sociocultural concepts like the varna system and legitimised their rule through the doctrine of Devaraja (god-king), portraying monarchs as divine manifestations of deities such as Shiva or Vishnu (Kulke & Rothermund, 2016). This concept shaped political legitimacy and statecraft across early Southeast Asian polities.

Running parallel to this was the Chinese political cosmology of Tianxia or the “Mandate of Heaven.” Since 221 BCE, Chinese emperors claimed legitimacy under this mandate, which posited that Heaven bestowed authority on virtuous rulers. Neighbouring states—such as Korea, Japan, and Mongolia—also adopted this notion to legitimise their sovereignty (Fairbank & Goldman, 2006). Together, these Indian and Chinese ideological frameworks defined the dual civilisational influences on Southeast Asian governance structures.

Buddhism entered Southeast Asia around the 3rd century BCE through trade routes and missionary activity during Emperor Ashoka’s reign (World Scientific, 2024). By the 13th century CE, Theravāda Buddhism had become deeply entrenched in mainland Southeast Asia, shaping its spiritual, political, and artistic traditions.

However, Southeast Asians did not passively absorb Indian culture. They selectively integrated Indian high culture with indigenous customs. For example, while the Indian practice of sati—where widows immolated themselves—was observed among Champa’s royal elite, it remained rare and confined to aristocratic circles. Many Southeast Asian societies, such as the Minangkabau in Sumatra and the Cham in Vietnam, continued their matrilineal traditions despite the patriarchal norms of Indian society (Coedès, 1968; Hall, 2011). Likewise, Chinese migrants introduced additional influences, blending Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist elements with local traditions (Reid, 1988). Thus, Indianisation was a process of cultural synthesis rather than imitation.

Key Polities

Several powerful empires arose across Southeast Asia, each contributing to the region’s complex history. Notable among these were Srivijaya in Sumatra, Majapahit in Java, Toungoo in Burma, Angkor in Cambodia, and Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, and Rattanakosin in Thailand. These states controlled trade, culture, and religion across vast areas, acting as bridges between South, East, and maritime Asia (Hall, 2011).

Legacy of India

India’s cultural and linguistic influence continues to resonate deeply in Southeast Asia. Centuries of contact introduced numerous Sanskrit and Tamil loanwords into local languages—visible in Thai, Khmer, Malay, and Javanese vocabularies (Sengupta, 2017). The Pallava dynasty of South India, which used Tamil, Prakrit, and Sanskrit, developed the Pallava script derived from Tamil-Brahmi. This script became the progenitor of many Southeast Asian writing systems, including the Javanese Kawi, Balinese, Khmer, and Thai scripts, all ultimately descending from the Brahmi family dating to the 7th–8th centuries BCE (World Scientific, 2024).

Architecturally, India’s influence is immortalised in iconic monuments such as Angkor Wat in Cambodia, Borobudur in Indonesia, and Prambanan in Java. These structures integrate Indian architectural forms—like the stupa, mandala, and temple mountain—with indigenous creativity. Borobudur, constructed in the 8th–9th centuries CE, exemplifies Gupta and post-Gupta artistic influence (Indian Council of World Affairs). It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 for its synthesis of Indian spiritual and Southeast Asian artistic traditions.

Everyday cultural practices also reflect this legacy. The Anjali Mudra—a gesture of reverence known in India as Namaste—appears regionally as the Wai in Thailand, Sampeah in Cambodia, Sambah in Indonesia, and Mingalaba in Myanmar. In the performing arts, the principles of the Natya Shastra shaped Southeast Asian classical dances, including Thailand’s Khon, Cambodia’s Lakhon, and Indonesia’s Wayang Wong (Mithra, 2024). These enduring expressions reveal how Indian philosophy and aesthetics were indigenised into Southeast Asia’s social fabric.

Conclusion

The civilisational connections between India and Southeast Asia remain profound. Rooted in centuries of religious, linguistic, and artistic exchange, these ties have evolved into a shared cultural heritage. Modern initiatives like India’s “Look East” Policy (1991) and its successor, the “Act East” Policy (2014), have revitalised these links by deepening trade, diplomatic, and cultural engagement. India became an ASEAN Dialogue Partner in 1996, followed by the establishment of the ASEAN-India Centre in 1995 to institutionalise cooperation (Indian Council of World Affairs).

Today, these interactions extend beyond policy into people-to-people exchange, academic collaboration, and tourism. From architectural marvels and linguistic continuity to spiritual and artistic traditions, the legacy of India remains integral to Southeast Asia’s cultural identity. Understanding this shared history underscores how ancient civilisational linkages continue to inform modern regional partnerships and mutual respect across Asia.

References

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